The bloody 1917 battles of Messines and Passchendaele had shown that a trench line could be successfully assaulted, given adequate preparation and training, albeit at huge cost. The strategy of "bite and hold" did work. Had the Germans not attempted their abortive offensive in March 1918, which brought them out of their defences at such cost, it is interesting to speculate whether the war would have ended as it did.
The German defeat in March-April 1918 had put them onto the defensive again, but the huge losses of the offensive could not easily be remedied. War weariness and the erosive impact of the Allied blockade of Germany had led to much domestic hardship. This increased agitation from groups within Germany for an end to the war. All this impacted on the ability of the Germans to resist the incerasingly confident Allies, bolstered by the arrival of American troops flooding into France.
After their defeat the Germans retreated to the Hindenburg line, a formidable series of trench lines. In August, the Allies lauched a series of attacks in what would become known as the "Hundred Days". This term refers to the period when the Allies forced the Germans onto the defensive, systematically forcing them back from one position to another, maintaining relentless pressure by continually shifting the point of attack from one part of the German trench line to another. The Germans could neither anticipate the exact position of the Allied attacks nor prevent them from seizing a trench line once they did attack. The static siege warfare of the previous four years had finally been broken, replaced by a more open form or warfare that eventually forced the Germans to capitulate.
The remains of a German pillbox destroyed by New Zealand artillery near Krak in the battle of Passchendaele
(H299, Kippenberger Military Archive)
The most important lesson learned in 1917 related to the role of the artillery. It was critical to the success of the New Zealand Division in its attacks on Messines and Broodseinde. Now, in August 1918, by retaining control of the artillery, moving them forward into positions previously identified by reconnaissance in support, the artillery would play a crucial role in the Division's success in the remaining encounters. Brigadier Johnston argued that the proper use of artillery in open warfare, as opposed to siege warfare, required thorough training in order to properly prepare for this role, and in collaboration with the infantry. Also of critical importance was the proper use of the Machine Gun Battalion. Again, its role needed to be adequately coordinated with the infantry in order to make the best use of massed machine gun fire during an assault on German positions. In the late September break, Russell was active in inspecting the various New Zealand units under training, and although he was critical of some units, his general conclusion was that the men were “wonderfully fit and cheery – a turnout far ahead of what one [could] have got 2 years ago.”
What had evolved within the British Army is what is known today as a weapons system. This refers to a planned systematic coordination of different weapons and/or arms of the military in order to achieve a military objective. By 1918 Haig's armies were to develop a weapons system, whereby the assault on an objective was systematically planned, involving a coordinated approach between the artillery (whose role might vary between an initial bombardment by heavy artillery to continuous support by the lighter field artillery in assisting advancing infantry), the infantry (employing a variety of infantry skills based around the “fire and manoeuvre” tactics), and air power, both for observation of enemy moves and attack. The timing of attacks by the different armies created uncertainty among the Germans about how best to employ what reserves were left. The result was a fluid series of attacks that not only systematically advanced but that kept the Germans off-balance in attempting to anticipate the Allies' next move. The key to this new weapons system was planning, logistics and skilled staff work. The Germans had no answer to this weapons system. As the advances were made, they were exploited by the Allies changing the focus of attack to another part of the Hindenburg Line. In this way, momentum was maintained until the Germans were forced to seek an armistice. The era of trench warfare was over.
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